Eastern Journal of European Studies

How does militarization affect the ecological footprint? The case of the Eastern Partnership countries and Russia  

 Sinem Eyuboglu,  A. Oznur Umit

ABSTRACT: This study examines the effects of militarization on environmental degradation in the Eastern Partnership countries (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine) and Russia, which are located in Eastern Europe and Eurasia and are not members of the European Union, over the period 1996-2022. The main research question of the study is whether there are long-run and short-run effects of the increase in military expenditures on the ecological footprint in these countries. Within the scope of panel data analysis, Westerlund (2008) cointegration test shows that there is a long-run relationship between militarization and ecological footprint. Long-run coefficient estimates suggest that increasing militarization increases environmental degradation. The findings are consistent with the Treadmill of Destruction theory, which argues that military activities lead to ecological destruction. On the other hand, Dumitrescu and Hurlin (2012) panel causality test shows that there is no significant causal relationship between militarization and ecological footprint in the short-run. As a policy recommendation, it is suggested to redirect military energy consumption to cleaner sources, such as nuclear and renewable energy and to integrate the environmental dimension into defence planning. Moreover, allocating a certain portion of defence budgets to environmental research and development activities may contribute to reducing the ecological impacts of military activities.

KEYWORDS: militarization, ecological footprint, Westerlund panel cointegration test, Dumitrescu-Hurlin panel causality test,

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Eyuboglu, S., & Umit, A. O. (2026). How does militarization affect the ecological footprint? The case of the Eastern Partnership countries and Russia. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 5-36. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0101

Personality and behavioural factors as predictors of investment intention in the Croatian stock market   

 Marija Vuković,  Snježana Pivac,  Karmen Vrhar Å uÅ¡njara 

ABSTRACT: This research examines the role of personality traits and appropriate behavioural factors in individual investors' decisions. The research was carried out using a survey analysis among 310 Croatian stock market investors. PLS-SEM (Partial least squares structural equation modelling) results offer evidence that investors' stability positively influences their emotions, overconfidence, loss aversion and investment decisions, while plasticity affects their overconfidence and loss aversion. Overconfidence, emotions and loss aversion positively affect investment decisions. These decisions positively impact investment performance, satisfaction and further investment intention. Understanding investors' behaviour may improve investment decisions and future investment intention, while also helping financial advisors design more suitable portfolios and strategies. Comparative analysis could further confirm broader behavioural patterns in the stock market.  

KEYWORDS: behavioural factors, investment decision, personality, financial market, investment intention,

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Vuković, M., Pivac, S., & Vrhar Å uÅ¡njara, K. (2026). Personality and behavioural factors as predictors of investment intention in the Croatian stock market. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 37-59. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0102

Winds of change: tracking air quality patterns across Romania's urban and metropolitan areas

 Cristian-Manuel Foșalău,  Alexandru Bănică,  Alexandra Sandu,  Corneliu Iațu

ABSTRACT:  Urban air quality has undergone significant change over the past two decades in Romania, yet the spatial dynamics of this transformation remain poorly understood at the national scale, particularly across the urban core-to-peri-urban gradient. This study tracks the space-time evolution of PM2.5 and NO2, as retrieved from the European Environmental Agency, across the 319 cities in Romania. A multi-step methodology is used, comprising a population-weighted air quality index anchored to residential population and built-up surface density, agglomerative hierarchical clustering, and an interaction regression model. The results document a general decline in both pollutants while revealing fundamentally different spatial regimes. NO2 concentrations are driven by population density in metropolitan centres, and by built-up surface density and commuting pressure in peri-urban environments, whereas PM2.5 follows built-up surface patterns only at the peri-urban scale. The core-periphery predictors point to the need for differentiated, metropolitan-scale governance in air quality planning. Policy recommendations comprise low-emission zones, public transport modernisation, fiscal instruments targeting traffic, and regional air quality planning frameworks where pollution exposure extends well beyond municipal boundaries.

KEYWORDS: air pollution policies, cities, metropolitan areas, spatio-temporal analysis, Romania,

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Foșalău, C.-M., Bănică, A., Sandu, A., & Iațu, C. (2026). Winds of change: tracking air quality patterns across Romania's urban and metropolitan areas. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 60-86. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0103

Exploring small business profiles in cybersecurity skills

 Monica Mihaela Maer Matei,  Anamaria Năstasă,  Andreea-Monica Munteanu,  Adriana AnaMaria Davidescu,  Cristina Mocanu,  Eliza Olivia Enno

ABSTRACT: Protecting sensitive data and ensuring secure operations in an interconnected world is crucial for companies, requiring new approaches and skills. This research paper aims to categorise small businesses based on their prioritisation of cybersecurity issues and their practices for handling cybersecurity tasks, with a focus on training and awareness. The Correspondence Analysis and Latent Class Model are used to identify associations between skills and firms' characteristics, respectively, to determine if there are hidden patterns among firms that might affect their responses. Using data collected from the Flash Eurobarometer 547 Cyberskills, we identified three distinct company profiles based on their attitudes towards cybersecurity (disengaged firms - 16%, partially engaged firms - 52% and proactive firms - 32%), influenced by turnover, industry and digital technology use. This research simplifies the data structure to understand small businesses' cybersecurity diversity. The results can inform research and practice by tailoring strategies and uncovering new insights.

KEYWORDS: cybersecurity skills, latent class analysis, correspondence analysis, SMEs, European Union, Flash Eurobarometer 547,

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Maer Matei, M. M., Năstasă, A., Munteanu, A.-M., Davidescu, A. A., Mocanu, C., & Enno, E. O. (2026). Exploring small business profiles in cybersecurity skills. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 87-110. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0104

The influence of judicial practice on intelligence actions in strengthening urban resilience: a comparative study of Romania, Poland, and Germany  

 Mihaela Tofan,  Sebastian Avăcăriței

ABSTRACT: Urban resilience has become a strategic priority for addressing complex economic, social, and environmental challenges in European cities. This article examines how judicial practice influences and mediates collective intelligence actions to strengthen urban resilience. We argue that case law plays a crucial role in translating European Union (EU) directives and policies on sustainable urban development into effective local implementation by providing legal frameworks that support innovation, public participation, and multilevel cooperation. Through comparative legal analysis, we assess national legislation, the integration of EU law, and landmark court decisions in Romania, Poland, and Germany, showing how courts shape urban planning, environmental protection, and governance. The findings indicate that, while countries adopt measures aligned with EU resilience objectives, their effectiveness is significantly influenced by judicial oversight: courts enforce directives, correct governance gaps, and facilitate collective intelligence approaches. Although differences persist, aligning national judicial practices with European norms is key to building resilient cities across the EU. The study clarifies how legal systems and urban resilience governance interact and offers policymakers options for leveraging judicial mechanisms to promote sustainable and inclusive urban development.

KEYWORDS: urban resilience, EU multilevel governance, judicial practice, collective intelligence, domestic legal system,

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Tofan, M., & Avăcăriței, S. (2026). The influence of judicial practice on intelligence actions in strengthening urban resilience: a comparative study of Romania, Poland, and Germany. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 111-134. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0105

The analysis of Georgia's participation in Global Value Chains      

 

 Lela Jamagidze,  Eka Lekashvili

ABSTRACT: The paper aims to study Georgia's positions in global value chains (GVCs), which represents a connecting channel to international markets and sources of productivity improvement. It analyzes backward and forward linkages and value-added trade to identify the main determinants of GVC integration. The structural gravity model for exported value-added is applied to the panel of 26 countries over 1997-2022, incorporating standard gravity components and additional policy-related and sector-specific regressors. The results show that Georgia's overall position in GVCs is weak and is under the influence of short-term factors rather than deep integration forces. The analysis of the determinants of value-added trade has demonstrated that larger GDP and the quality of human capital are powerful drivers of Georgia's participation in GVCs. The findings suggest that Georgia's priorities should involve industrial policies targeted at high value-added creation, investments in skills development and industrial upgrading for enhanced GVC integration.

KEYWORDS: global value chains, Georgia, structural gravity model, trade integration,  

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Jamagidze, L., & Lekashvili, E. (2026). The analysis of Georgia's participation in Global Value Chains. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 135-158. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0106

Human capital and well-being in Romania's strategic documents: from catching-up to reactive positioning

 Daniela-Andreia Damian,  Bogdan-Constantin Ibănescu,  Mihai Bulai,  Corneliu Iațu

ABSTRACT: This paper examines how human capital and well-being are conceptualised and articulated within Romania's national strategic documents, and how this articulation changed before and after 2020. Drawing on a qualitative analysis of 14 national strategies, amounting to more than 1,500 pages, the study uses the OECD well-being framework as an analytical lens to assess the integration of human capital into Romanian policy discourse. The documents were divided into two strategic periods, marking the shift between two MFFs, and the pre- and post-pandemic period, and coded using MAXQDA 24, with particular attention to causal relations between human capital, education, skills, well-being, disparities, digitalisation, and the green transition. The findings reveal that disparities remain a central node in both periods, reflecting a persistent concern with territorial, social, educational, and digital inequalities. However, after 2020, Romanian strategies display a visible reorientation towards resilience, competitiveness, and preparedness, especially in relation to the green and digital transitions. Education remains the dominant pillar of human capital, while health, well-being, civic engagement, and social cohesion are less explicitly integrated. The paper argues that Romania's strategic discourse is moving from a catching-up logic towards a more reactive positioning shaped by European and OECD frameworks. Nevertheless, human capital remains insufficiently conceptualised as a unified and dynamic policy category, requiring greater coherence in future strategic frameworks.

Keywords: human capital, Romania, national strategies, OECD well-being framework, territorial disparities, policy realignment, well-being, 

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Damian, D.-A., Ibănescu, B.-C., Bulai, M., & Iațu, C. (2026). Human capital and well-being in Romania's strategic documents: from catching-up to reactive positioning. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 159-187. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0107

Reshaping Europe's industrial future:
the impact of the new political landscape on industrial policy and competitiveness in five CEE countries

 Melania-Gabriela Ciot,  Catalina Tudorie

ABSTRACT: Amid the rising geopolitical tensions between the EU's states, a tendency towards radicalism and protectionism in Western countries, and an increase in interest in nationalistic autonomy, there is a pressing need for a new direction. Recent developments, such as the Green Deal Industrial Plan, the Net-Zero Industry Act and the European Chips Act, raise questions about their effectiveness in strengthening Europe's industrial base and resilience. This article examines the impact of political shifts on industrial policy and competitiveness in Central and Eastern Europe, with a three-year period (2022-2025) of data following key indicators (GDP growth, FDI, R&D, education, innovation indices) from five CEE countries (Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia). The study, therefore, addresses the under-explored gap between EU industrial ambitions and national absorptive capacity and competitiveness. The findings highlight diverging approaches: while Czech Republic and Poland benefit from innovation and stability, Hungary offsets slow growth with massive but strategically dependent FDI. It suggests that without stronger governance reforms, targeted investment in human capital and regionally tailored implementation of EU industrial instruments, the transitions may reinforce a -Two-Speed- industrial Europe rather than closing existing gaps.

KEYWORDS: industrial policy, competitiveness, Central and Eastern Europe, Green Deal, geopolitical tensions,

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Ciot, M.-G., & Tudorie, C. (2026). Reshaping Europe's industrial future: the impact of the new political landscape on industrial policy and competitiveness in five CEE countries. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 188-215. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0108

Political debate as a filter: defence policy dynamics in EU member states (2004-2024)

 Georgi Penchev

ABSTRACT: This article examines the relationship between external threats, domestic political debate, and defence expenditures in EU member states, 2004-2024. Using Dynamic Time Warping (DTW) applied to Manifesto Project data, political debate dynamics are quantitatively measured against a threat index constructed from UCDP conflict fatalities. Robustness is confirmed against per-capita and distance-weighted variants and the Caldara-Iacoviello Geopolitical Risk index. Cluster analysis identifies four threat-response patterns and two debate-spending patterns. Right-wing governments show systematically higher defence stances. GDP-weighted EU averages diverge substantially from simple averages, particularly for opposition stances. The comparative analysis confirms the mediating role of domestic politics in European defence policy heterogeneity.

KEYWORDS: defence policy, political debate, defence expenditures, European Union,

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Penchev, G. (2026). Political debate as a filter: defence policy dynamics in EU member states (2004-2024). Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 216-243. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0109

Tokenization of assets in the contemporary financial system. Determinants and potential implications   

 Piotr Misztal

ABSTRACT: Tokenization is the digital representation of an existing physical or financial asset on a distributed ledger. It refers to the process of recording traditional assets, such as financial instruments, collateral portfolios, or real-world property using Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT). Asset tokenization specifically involves linking or embedding the economic value and legal rights of tangible or intangible assets into digital tokens created on a blockchain. The concept of Tokenomics describes the ability of organizations to design business models and projects based on the creation, distribution, and trading of digital tokens. These tokens can represent both real objects and intangible assets, including cash, patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. By enabling assets to be converted into divisible digital units, tokenization facilitates fractional ownership and improves liquidity. This procedure is increasingly being applied to a wide range of asset classes, such as real estate, commodities, equity shares, intellectual property, and personal valuables. Blockchain technology plays a critical role in ensuring the security, immutability, and transferability of these tokens. The aim of this research is to examine the key factors that determine the adoption of asset tokenization in the contemporary financial system. The study analyzes the benefits and costs associated with tokenization and explores current developments and anticipated future trends in this field.

KEYWORDS: token, asset, digital asset, blockchain,

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Misztal, P. (2026). Tokenization of assets in the contemporary financial system. Determinants and potential implications. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 244-264. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0110

A critical assessment of Habermas's vision of political integration of Europe and prospects of transnational social justice

 Asad Shahzad,  Syed Aamir Alam Rizvi

ABSTRACT: This study seeks to contribute to an underexplored area of research: Habermas's vision of the EU's political integration, in relation to his discourse ethics, communicative norms, and public sphere, as a means of providing social justice and fostering transnational solidarity across the EU. It aims to assess the applicability of Habermas's theoretical framework to his vision of the EU's political integration in the face of challenges posed by global markets and the continuing influence of nationalism. It also examines the limitations of his theories of deliberative democracy, discourse ethics, and the public sphere amid the challenges posed by power dynamics, capitalism, and nationalism. It investigates the impact of the interplay between capitalism and nationalism on ethnic multiplicities, influence structures, and societal pathologies. It evaluates Habermas's aspiration to construct transnational cohesiveness amid adamant, strong nationalist consciousness. It analyzes Habermas's communicative action (a cornerstone of his deliberative democracy) and its requisites from the perspective of Foucault's philosophy of power, and indicates that Habermas's vision does not adequately address threats to communicative norms. Thus, Habermas's theoretical framework does not seem to provide a fitting response to the practical challenges posed to the vision of transnational political integration.

KEYWORDS: transnational solidarity, nationalism, constitutional patriotism, public sphere, political integration,

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Shahzad, A., & Rizvi, S. A. A. (2026). A critical assessment of Habermas's vision of political integration of Europe and prospects of transnational social justice. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 265-280. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0111

National handling fees in Romania, Italy, and France: challenges to the functioning of the EU customs union and the common commercial policy 

 Emanoil-Corneliu Mogîrzan

ABSTRACT: This article examines the legality under EU law of national handling fees introduced by Romania, Italy and France in response to the growth of low-value consignments imported directly from third countries, especially China. Using a doctrinal and comparative approach, it argues that these fees qualify as prohibited charges having equivalent effect to customs duties, thereby infringing EU rules governing the customs union and the common commercial policy, areas that fall within the Union's exclusive competence. It further shows that the Romanian regime raises a distinct and underexplored problem: obligations and sanctions imposed on postal operators to secure the collection of an unlawful charge are themselves contrary to law, as measures having equivalent effect to quantitative restrictions affecting third-country goods. The article concludes that any handling fee reflecting the actual administrative costs should, in principle, be designed at Union rather than Member State level.

KEYWORDS: charges having equivalent effect, measures having equivalent effect, EU customs union, common commercial policy, low-value imports from third countries, 

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Mogîrzan, E.-C. (2026). National handling fees in Romania, Italy, and France: challenges to the functioning of the EU customs union and the common commercial policy. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 281-304. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0112

Research note: A note on pollution cleanup investments, signalling, Ganges River resilience, and lessons for Europe 

 Amitrajeet A. Batabyal

ABSTRACT: We study pollution cleanup investments, signalling, and the resilience of the Ganges River when investors differ in capability and cleanup projects differ in their ability to enhance resilience. First, we derive the minimal level of signalling necessary to sustain a separating equilibrium in which the government agency can distinguish between more and less capable investors. Larger cleanup efforts require greater signalling, although the marginal increase in signalling declines as the scale of cleanup expands. Second, we analyse the benchmark case in which signalling is impossible. Here, more and less capable investors choose the more resilience enhancing cleanup projects because the expected payment from these projects is larger than the payment from less resilience enhancing projects. Hence, eliminating signalling raises investor welfare and encourages projects that are more beneficial for the resilience of the Ganges.

KEYWORDS: Ganges river, investment, pollution cleanup, resilience, signalling,

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Batabyal, A. A. (2026). Research note: A note on pollution cleanup investments, signalling, Ganges River resilience, and lessons for Europe. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 305-312. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0113

Research note: From regulation to reputation: the EU's anticorruption directive as public diplomacy

 Niedja de Andrade e Silva Forte dos Santos

ABSTRACT: This research note examines the European Union's 2026 Anticorruption Directive -Directive (EU) 2026/1021 - as both a regulatory instrument and an expression of anticorruption public diplomacy. It argues that the directive's significance extends beyond internal legal harmonisation to the external projection of normative standards and integrity governance models. Beyond introducing definitions of corruption offences, preventive obligations, compliance, and accountability frameworks, the directive can be interpreted as reflecting a broader shift from punitive anticorruption approaches towards systemic integrity governance. Through the lens of anticorruption public diplomacy, legal instruments operate not only as regulatory frameworks but also as vehicles of normative projection, identity construction, and reputational positioning. In this perspective, the directive contributes to shaping the European Union's external identity as a promoter of transparency, accountability, rule of law, and institutional integrity within the global anticorruption regime. The note advances three main arguments. First, the directive functions as a mechanism of normative socialisation by institutionalising shared expectations of conduct and aligning Member States with broader international anticorruption standards. Second, it contributes to the consolidation of a European anticorruption identity through the projection of common governance and integrity principles. Third, it strengthens the Union's reputational security by signalling institutional commitment to integrity and reinforcing international trust in the EU as a normative actor. By framing European anticorruption law as a form of public diplomacy, this research note seeks to bridge legal scholarship and international relations, offering a conceptual framework through which regulatory developments may be understood as constitutive elements of contemporary international order.

KEYWORDS: anticorruption public diplomacy; anticorruption directive, Directive (EU) 2026/1021, normative socialisation, global anticorruption regime,

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Santos, N. de A. S. F. dos. (2026). Research note: From regulation to reputation - the EU's anticorruption directive as public diplomacy. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 313-324. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0114

Research note: Trade dependencies and power    

 Valentin Cojanu

ABSTRACT: This research note addresses the current lack of a comprehensive economic framework for analysing power in international trade. The paper traces the historical understanding of trade dependency from mercantilist doctrines, which focused on the "balance of trade," to modern analyses incorporating concepts like national power, game theory, and international political economy/geoeconomics. It highlights that "critical" trade links are those that could cause significant economic or societal damage, be used for coercion, or threaten national security. The core of the document outlines five categories of methodologies to understand power relations in trade. The conclusions emphasize that in an era of global economic disturbances, understanding trade dependencies and power is crucial.

KEYWORDS: power, international relations, mercantilism, network, vulnerability,   

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Cojanu, V. (2026). Research note: Trade dependencies and power. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 325-337. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0115

Research note: Between multilevel governance and urban foreign policy - Budapest and the Pact of Free Cities in Central and Eastern Europe 

 IIlona Pálné Kovács ,  Balázs Brucker

ABSTRACT: This article examines the emergence of the Pact of Free Cities (PFC) as a form of politically engaged city diplomacy in Central and Eastern Europe. Drawing on the literature on multilevel governance, city diplomacy, and new municipalism, the study analyses how Budapest and other opposition-led capitals transformed domestic political conflict into transnational municipal cooperation after 2019. The paper argues that the PFC represents a distinctive form of paradiplomacy, through which cities seek to counterbalance the increasing domestic centralisation and political marginalisation by strengthening their international presence and European networks. Based on document analysis and elite interviews, the study highlights both the political significance and the structural fragility of the initiative. While the Pact has successfully articulated a normative agenda centred on democracy, human rights, climate policy, and local autonomy, its informal structure and dependence on individual political leaders limit its long-term institutional sustainability. The findings contribute to debates on the changing role of cities within European multilevel governance systems.

KEYWORDS: multilevel governance, city diplomacy, Pact of Free Cities, new municipalism, Central and Eastern Europe,   

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Pálné Kovács, I., & Brucker, B. (2026). Research note: Between multilevel governance and urban foreign policy - Budapest and the Pact of Free Cities in Central and Eastern Europe. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 338-350. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0116

Book review: Fred Block (2025). The Habitation Society. Creating Sustainable Prosperity. Agenda Publishing, Columbia University Press, p 192

 Oliver Kovacs

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Kovacs, O. (2026). Book review: Fred Block (2025). The Habitation Society. Creating Sustainable Prosperity. Eastern Journal of European Studies, 17(01), 351-358. https://doi.org/10.47743/ejes-2026-0117